Sources & glossary

A small glossary

Dhamma / Dharma

The Buddha’s teaching; the term has other meanings in context.

Dukkha

Suffering, stress or unsatisfactoriness; more than ordinary sadness.

Dāna

Generosity and giving.

Sīla

Ethical conduct and training.

Bhāvanā

Cultivation or development, including mental cultivation.

Saṅgha

Monastic or noble community in traditional contexts; also used more broadly today.

Anicca

Impermanence: conditioned things change.

Anattā

Not-self: the aggregates should not be taken as a permanent, controlling self.

Kamma / Karma

Intentional action; not a reason to blame people for misfortune.

Mettā / Karuṇā

Loving-kindness / compassion.

Śūnyatā

Emptiness; in Mahāyāna, the absence of independent inherent existence, not simple nothingness.

Triple Gem / Tiratana

Buddha, Dhamma/Dharma and Sangha: the three refuges. Interpretations of each deserve context.

Theravāda

Tradition of the Elders; a diverse Buddhist family centring the Pāli Tipiṭaka. Do not use Hīnayāna as its neutral modern name.

Mahāyāna

Great Vehicle; diverse traditions centrally emphasising the bodhisattva aspiration and accepting Mahāyāna sūtras.

Vajrayāna

Vajra Vehicle; tantric Buddhist approaches generally within Mahāyāna. Some practices require empowerment and guidance.

Bodhisattva / Bodhisatta

A being aspiring to Buddhahood; central in Mahāyāna, with bodhisatta traditions also present in Theravāda. Context shapes the term’s use.

Arahant / Arhat

One who has attained liberation; especially prominent as a goal in Theravāda. Comparisons with Buddhahood vary by tradition.

Ekayāna

One Vehicle; a doctrinal idea in particular Mahāyāna texts, including the Lotus Sūtra. Not a neutral synonym for institutional merger.

Sutta / Sūtra

Related Pāli and Sanskrit terms for discourses; the title alone does not tell you which canon accepts a text.

Vinaya

Monastic discipline and its textual traditions. Different ordination lineages cannot simply be merged by changing a community’s name.

Non-sectarian learning

Learning across traditions without contempt or forced agreement; it still requires accurate explanations and respect for commitments.

1. The Middle Way and Four Noble TruthsSN 56.11 · Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (Trans.). (1993). Access to Insight, BCBS edition (2013).Source in English
2. The Noble Eightfold PathSN 45.8 · Magga-vibhanga Sutta. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (Trans.). (1996). Access to Insight, BCBS edition (2013).Source in English
3. Truth, benefit and timing in speechMN 58 · Abhaya Sutta. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (Trans.). (1997). Access to Insight, BCBS edition (2013).Source in English
4. Subjects for reflectionAN 5.57 · Upajjhatthana Sutta. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (Trans.). (1997). Access to Insight, BCBS edition (2013).Source in English
5. Intention and actionAN 6.63 · Nibbedhika Sutta. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (Trans.). (1997). Access to Insight, BCBS edition (2013).Source in English
6. Motivations for givingAN 7.49 · Dāna Sutta. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (Trans.). (1997). Access to Insight, BCBS edition (2013).Source in English
7. Examining teachings and conductAN 3.65 · Kālāma Sutta. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (Trans.). (1994). Access to Insight, BCBS edition (2013).Source in English
8. Learning and living the teachingDhammapada 1 · Yamakavagga. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (Trans.). (1997). Access to Insight, BCBS edition (2013).Source in English
9. Dependent originationSN 12.2 · Paticca-samuppada-vibhanga Sutta. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (Trans.). (1997). Access to Insight, BCBS edition (2013).Source in English
10. The two darts and painful feelingSN 36.6 · Sallatha Sutta. Nyanaponika Thera (Trans.). (1983). Buddhist Publication Society. Access to Insight edition (2010).Source in English
11. The aggregates and not-selfSN 22.59 · Anatta-lakkhana Sutta. Ñāṇamoli Thera (Trans.). Access to Insight.Source in English
12. Loving-kindnessKaraṇīya Mettā Sutta · Snp 1.8. Amaravati Sangha (Trans.). Access to Insight.Source in English
13. The five ethical training rulesThe Five Precepts. Access to Insight. (2005; revised 2013).Source in English
14. Theravāda cosmologyThe Thirty-one Planes of Existence. Access to Insight. (2005; revised 2013).Source in English
15. Monastic and noble communitiesSangha. Access to Insight.Source in English
16. The ten perfectionsThe Ten Perfections: A Study Guide. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight.Source in English
17. A Tibetan Mahāyāna perspectiveBuddhism FAQ. Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition. (n.d.).Source in English
18. Mahāyāna texts and the Heart SutraSutras. Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition. (n.d.).Source in English
19. Chinese Buddhist education in MalaysiaA Preliminary Study of the Development Characteristics of Chinese Buddhist Education in Malaysia. Guan, Y.-C. (2021). Journal of Sinological Studies, 12(1).Source in English
20. Malaysian Buddhist organisationsMember Organisations. Malaysian Buddhist Consultative Council. (n.d.).Source in English
21. An institutional history and purposeAbout BMSM. Buddhist Missionary Society Malaysia. (n.d.).Source in English
22. Buddhist history and visual cultureBuddhism and Buddhist Art. Dehejia, V. (2007, February 1). The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.Source in English
23. Lumbini and the pilgrimage traditionLumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (n.d.).Source in English
24. Research limitations and safetyMeditation and Mindfulness: Effectiveness and Safety. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. (n.d.).Source in English
25. Evidence on structured mindfulness programmesMindfulness-based programmes for mental health promotion in adults in nonclinical settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Galante, J., Friedrich, C., Dawson, A. F., Modrego-Alarcón, M., Gebbing, P., Delgado-Suárez, I., Gupta, R., Dean, L., Dalgleish, T., White, I. R., & Jones, P. B. (2021). PLOS Medicine, 18(1), e1003481.Source in English
26. Malaysian personal-data protectionFrequently Asked Questions. Personal Data Protection Commissioner, Malaysia. (n.d.).Source in English
27. The Buddhist flag and symbols仏旗・法輪・三帰依文. Japan Buddhist Federation. (n.d.).Source in Japanese
28. Kathina and the rains retreatKathina 2012 · Samadhi Vihara. Buddhist Missionary Society Malaysia. (2012).Source in English
29. Rahula’s account of the 1967 agreement and later restatementOne Vehicle for Peace. Rahula, W. (1981). One vehicle for peace. In Proceedings: Third International Congress, World Buddhist Sangha Council (pp. 32–35).Source in English
30. The nine-point text, reproduced from Vipassana Fellowship; compare with 1981Basic Points Unifying the Theravāda and the Mahāyāna. Rahula, W. (1967). Basic points unifying the Theravāda and the Mahāyāna.Source in English
31. YBAM’s own description of its cross-tradition and educational workEastern Horizon: About Us. Young Buddhist Association of Malaysia. (n.d.). Eastern Horizon.Source in English
32. A university case study; published abstract consulted, not the full chapterPassing the Light of Buddhism in Malaysia through Dharma Class. Tan, L. O. (2024). Passing the light of Buddhism in Malaysia through dharma class. In C. Bruntz & B. Schedneck (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of lived Buddhism (pp. 297–311). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197658697.013.17Source in English
33. The One Vehicle in a Mahāyāna textual settingThe Lotus Sutra (Revised Second Edition). Kubo, T., & Yuyama, A. (Trans.). (2007). The Lotus Sutra (Rev. 2nd ed.). Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.Source in English
34. Practice permissions and initiation requirements in this traditionMantras. Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition. (n.d.). Mantras.Source in English
35. Public description of education, youth, welfare and community serviceWelcome to Ti-Ratana!. Ti-Ratana Buddhist Society. (2020, September 17). Welcome to Ti-Ratana!Source in English
36. Study and meditation: a warning against mutual disparagementAN 6.46 · Cunda Sutta. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (Trans.). (2006). Cunda Sutta: Cunda (AN 6.46). Access to Insight, BCBS edition (2013).Source in English
37. A publisher’s catalogue of translated Buddhist textsThe English Tripitaka. BDK America. (n.d.). The English Tripitaka.Source in English